Hungary joined the First World War as part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire to defend the Empire's interests. The war was presented in Hungary as being supported by the whole nation. Enthusiasm for the war and hostility against the enemy were understood to be inherent in patriotism and were expected to be demonstrated. Yet there were some who remained pacifist throughout the conflict. The politicians and social scientists who gathered around the first sociology journal, Twentieth Century (">Huszadik Szdzád), and the movement of the so-called "middle-class radicals' (polgári radikálisok) were critical of the war, although their pacifism was often merely theoretical (Mérey 1947: 45). The pacifist circles, who met informally in cafés or private apartments, were connected to free masonry in Budapest. The Radical Party's programme also included the idea of anti-militarism (ibid.: 45). During the war, some of the strikes against poor food supply and high prices organized by the Party of Hungarian Social Democrats were likewise connected to this criticism of militarism (Nevelő 1980: 118–20). Yet the social democrats, in their fear of the authorities (who accused them of anti-war propaganda), did not, apart from a manifesto in 1916, publish or act openly against the war.² It seems that the strongest voice against the war in Hungary that could be heard was that of women (Galántai 2001: 206).